Classes & Properties Declarations of CRMinf version: 1.0 (DRAFT)

This class comprises the activity of making honest inferences or observations. An honest inference or observation is one in which the E39 Actor carrying out the I1 Argumentation justifies and believes that the I6 Belief Value associated with the resulting I2 Belief about the I4 Proposition Set is the correct value at the time that the activity was undertaken and that any I3 Inference Logic or methodology was correctly applied.

One instance of E39 Actor may carry out an instance of I1 Argumentation, though the E39 Actor may, of course, be an instance of E74 Group.

• My classification and dating of this bowl (I5) (fictitious)
• My adoption of the belief that Dragendorff type 29 bowls are from the 1^st Century AD (I7) (fictitious)

I1(x) ⇒ E7(x)

This class comprises the notion that the associated I4 Proposition Set is held to have a particular I6 Belief Value by a particular E39 Actor. This can be understood as the period of time that an individual group holds a particular set of propositions to be true, false, or somewhere in between.

• Ian Hodder’s belief from 1996 on, that Floor B was earlier than wall C of building 1 in the north area of Catalhöyük (Hodder 1999).

I2(x) ⇒ E2(x)

This class comprises the rules used as inputs to I5 Inference Making.

In this context, the term “logic” is used in the most general sense of the Greek term, and not in the mathematical sense only. Examples are the direct application of formal logic, mathematical theories and calculus, formal or informal default reasoning based on default values associated with categories, probabilistic reasoning-based mathematical models and assumed or observed frequencies for certain categories, application of theoretical social models and comparisons with “cultural parallels”, etc. An instance of Inference Logic could also be a reference to the exact software release of a Bayesian reasoner, a rule such as “later layers are on top of earlier layers”, or even a term like “social intuition”, if this is scholarly acceptable (after Doerr, Kritsotaki and Boutsika, 2011).

Indeed, anything that is scientifically or academically acceptable as a method for drawing conclusions may be included, for instance, human pattern recognition.

A particular instance of I3 Inference Logic would be the algorithm implemented in a particular revision of a software package.

Instances of I3 Inference Logic not only comprise the method of reasoning, but also the set of categorical laws or axioms used in the argumentation. Often, both are inextricably interwoven, for instance in a software implementation.

• Dating using a reference typology
• Use of parallels

I3(x) ⇒ E89(x)

This class comprises the sets of formal, binary propositions that an I2 Belief is held about. It could be implemented as a named graph, a spreadsheet, or any other structured dataset. Regardless of the specific syntax employed, the effective propositions it contains should be made up of unambiguous identifiers, concepts of a formal ontology, and constructs of logic.

• Francesca Bologna’s belief that Publius Cornelius Tacitus meant that “Nero was at Antium when the Great Fire broke out and did not return to Rome until the fire approached his house” (I12) J2 that

{Nero in July 19, 64 AD (E93 Presence)

P164 is temporally specified by: July 19, 64 AD (E52 Timespan)

P195 was a presence of: Nero Claudius Caesar Drusus Germanicus (E21 Person)

P167 was within Antium in 64AD, Italy (E53 Place)

P133 is spatiotemporally separated from: The Great Fire of Rome (E5 Event)

P1 is identified by: incendium magnum Romae (E41 Appellation)

P4 has timespan: July 19-27, 64 AD (E52 Timespan)

P7 took place at : Rome in 64AD, Italy (E53 Place)

} (Bologna 2021)

• Francesca Bologna’s belief that Gaius Suetonius Tranquillus meant that Nero was singing in Rome while it was burning from July 19 in 64 AD J15 assumed meaning
  {Nero July 19, 64 AD (E93 Presence)

P164 is temporally specified by: July 19, 64 AD (E52 Timespan)

P195 was a presence of: Nero Claudius Caesar Drusus Germanicus (E21 Person)

P167 was within Rome in 64AD, Italy (E53 Place)

P10 falls within (contains): Nero Singing (E7 Activity)

P2 has type: Singing (E55 Type)

P14 carried out by: Nero Claudius Caesar Drusus Germanicus (E21)

P4 has timespan: July 19, 64 AD (E52 Timespan)

P7 took place at: Rome in 64AD, Italy (E53 Place)

P132 spatiotemporally overlaps with: The Great Fire of Rome (E5 Event)

P1 is identified by: incendium magnum Romae (E41 Appellation)

P4 has timespan: July 19-27, 64 AD (E52 Timespan)

P7 took place at: Rome in 64AD, Italy (E53 Place)

}(I4) (Bologna 2021)

I4(x) ⇒ E73(x)

This class comprises the action of making honest propositions and statements about particular states of affairs in reality or possible realities, or categorical descriptions of reality by using inferences from other statements based on hypotheses and any form of formal or informal logic. It includes evaluations, calculations, and interpretations, based on mathematical formulations and propositions.

It is characterized by the use of an existing I2 Belief as the premise that, taken together with a set of I3 Inference Logic, draws a further I2 Belief as a conclusion.

Documenting instances of I5 Inference making primarily enables tracing the dependency of knowledge from conclusion to premise through subsequent inferences possibly back to primary evidence, so that the range of influence of knowledge revision at any intermediate stage of complex inference chains on current convictions can be narrowed down by query. The explicit reference to the applied inference logic further allows scholars and scientists to assess if they can or would follow the documented argument. The class is not intended to promote the use of computationally decidable systems of logic as replacements of scholarly justifications of arguments, even though it allows for documenting the use of decidable logic, if that was deemed adequate for the problem at hand. Principles of scholarly justifications of arguments are also regarded as kinds of inference logic.

• My classification and dating of this bowl (fictitious)

I5(x) ⇒ I1(x)

I5(x) ⇒ E13(x)

This class comprises any encoding of the value of the truth of an I2 Belief. It may be expressed in terms of discrete logic, modal logic, probability, fuzziness, or any other adequate representational system.

A minimum requirement of flexibility is for three values: True; False; Unknown.

• True
• False

I6(x) ⇒ E59(x)

This class comprises the action of an E39 Actor adopting propositions taken from an interpretation of the intended meaning of an instance of E73 Information Object as being true, or in some way likely to be true. The adopted propositions constitute the conclusion of the action in the form of a new instance of I12 Adopted belief of the actor adopting it.

The basis of I7 Belief Adoption is the justification of trust in the source of the adopted propositions, rather than the application of rules for inferring the respective propositions from logical remises.

Typical examples are the citation of academic papers or the reuse of datasets.

Where an instance of I7 Belief Adoption is based on personal communication (marked as pers.comm. in the studied text), this should be represented by using P2 has type: “Pers.Comm.”, directly from the instance of I7 Belief Adoption.

• Francesca Bologna’s adoption of Tacitus’ belief where Emperor Nero was when the Great Fire started. (Bologna 2021).
  [Francesca Bologna adopted Tacitus belief, as the only historian who was actually alive at the time of the Great Fire of Rome (although only 8 years old): "Nero at this time was at Antium and did not return to Rome until the fire approached his house" in: Tacitus, Publius Cornelius. The Annals. Book 15 [15.16].]

I7(x) ⇒ I(x)

This class comprises statements about the provenance of instances of E70 Thing existing at the time of making the provenance statements. An instance of I10 Provenance Statement must contain propositions about the presence of the respective instances of E70 Thing in an event or spatiotemporal context of reference. Characteristically, it may pertain to the writing by a known author at a known or unknown date or place, or to the existence of the text known to some public, regardless of the truth of authorship.

In case that only information objects exist describing the proper thing of interest, such as a photo, or photo of a photo, of a lost archaeological object, an instance of I10 Provenance Statement should contain the relevant chain of intermediate events transferring the information from the proper thing of interest up to the extant information objects taken into account, or refer to it.

The property J20 is about the provenance of can be used to link the instance of I10 Provenance Statement as a whole, with the proper thing of interest. It constitutes a constraint to the provenance statement that it must contain the description of the relevant context of reference, and, if applicable, to the relevant chain of intermediate events transferring the information.

• The statement: “The copy of Tacitus, Publius Cornelius. The Annals. Book 15 [15.6] at the hands of Francesca Bologna from the British Museum in 2021 represents a text written by the ancient Roman historian, Publius Cornelius Tacitus.”
  [This statement can be represented by a set of CRM compatible propositions]
• The statement: “The Latin content of the extant book De Vita Caesarum attributed to Gaius Suetonius Tranquillus was published in Rome in 121 AD and its content has not been alienated in its current known form through transcription errors”
  [This statement can be represented by a set of CRM compatible propositions]
• The statement: “The exemplar of the Merchant of Venice, Quarto 1 (1600), owned by the British Library, shelf number BL C.34.k.22, was published in 1600 AD by Thomas Hayes.”
  [This statement can be represented by a set of CRM compatible propositions]
• The statement: “The Nebra Sky Disc dates to the Early Bronze Age” (Pernicka et al. 2020).

I10(x) ⇒ I4(x)

This class comprises the persistence of particular value ranges of the properties of a particular thing or things, over a timespan. The identity of an instance of I11 Situation is given by prescribing kinds of properties and a particular timespan and optionally the spatial area. This prescription of properties enables the possibility of observing the values of those properties prescribed, that hold in the specified timespan and spatial area.

In general, there are no natural boundaries to the combination of the kinds of properties or the space and the timespan under consideration upon defining a situation, other than the interest and ability of the observer to do so. Therefore, this class is purely epistemological in nature, describing arbitrary units of observation of the world.

• the persistence of the value of the pH for sample XIV during the period of the pH measurement, which took place one month after the application of Ca(OH)₂ dispersion to the sample (Giori et al. 2002).

I11(x) ⇒ I4(x)

This class comprises the notion that an instance of E39 Actor adopted the meaning of an associated instance of I4 Proposition Set by arguments of trust from a source created by another instance of E39 Actor, and holds it as being true or in some way likely to be true. This source can be documented via the property J14 adopted interpretation of (has adopted interpretation). The used interpretation of the meaning of the source may be a belief of the adopting Actor or another one and can be documented as an instance of I13 Intended Meaning Belief, if this detail is relevant.

• Francesca Bologna’s belief that Nero was at Antium, when the Great Fire broke out and did not return to Rome until the fire approached his house (Bologna 2021).

I12(x) ⇒ I2(x)

This class comprises beliefs on the part of an instance of E39 Actor that a particular I4 Proposition Set formally represents (in part or in its entirety) the intended meaning that was created by another instance of E39 Actor, without considering an opinion yet about its truth or trustworthiness.

The belief constitutes an interpretation of the source. The respective proposition set can be documented using the property J16 assumed meaning (is supposed meaning in), whereas the respective source can be documented via the property J17 about (has interpretation) and holds as being true or in some way likely to be true.

• Francesca Bologna’s belief that Publius Cornelius Tacitus meant that “Nero was at Antium when the Great Fire broke out and did not return to Rome until the fire approached his house”. (Bologna 2021)
• Francesca Bologna’s belief that Gaius Suetonius Tranquillus meant that “Nero was singing in Rome while it burned from July 19 in 64 AD”. (Bologna 2021)

I13(x) ⇒ I2(x)

This class comprises beliefs of an Actor that a particular instance of E70 Thing, in general available to this Actor, is identical to one present in a relevant event or context of reference in the past, such as a text in a book being sufficiently identical to the one in the claimed author’s original manuscript or edition in order to be used by the Actor for citation. Other examples are the provenance of archaeological objects in collections, which may pertain to the claimed excavation spot or to the inferred context of their creation.

The term “in general available” means that the thing is either physically in the hands of the actor or that the actor or an actor of their trust has the principled ability to get access to the thing. In case that only information objects exist describing the proper thing of interest, such as a photo of a lost archaeological object, an instance of Ix5 Provenance Belief should be based on arguments including references to provenance beliefs about descriptions, representations and the described things.

A formal description about the assumed provenance can be documented via the property Jxx8 that. Note that, depending on the intended argumentation about the respective instance of E70 Thing, different aspects of provenance may be described about the same instance of E70 Thing.

• Francesca Bologna’s belief about the authenticity of Tacitus, Publius Cornelius. The Annals. Book 15.

I14(x) ⇒ I2(x)

This class comprises activities of making arguments and concluding about the likely provenance of instances of E70 Thing existing at the time of this assessment. These activities may further be about the provenance of things referred to or represented by existing information objects, and subsequent references.

• the assessment by Ernst Pernicka et al. about the provenance of the Nebra Sky Disc (Pernicka et al. 2020)

I15(x) ⇒ I1(x)

This class comprises processes of interpreting the intended meaning of parts or the whole of the content of an instance of E73 Information Object as propositions. Such interpretations may include the disambiguation of the meaning of words and expressions, expanding abbreviations, resolving named entities, references and co-references, and complementing missing text parts, without however arguing about the actual truth of the information.

In principle, any use of an information object pertaining to its meaning implies an instance of Ix1 Meaning Comprehension. However, in practical applications, texts in natural language are often clear enough so that no explicit explanation of the interpretation is needed for the user. In such cases, there is no need to create explicit instances of Ix1 Meaning Comprehension, but the adopted belief may directly be linked via Jxx2 adopted interpretation of (has adopted interpretation), or the instance of Ix1 Meaning Comprehension may be made implicit to an instance of I7 Belief Adoption by multiple instantiation.

Explicit documentation of instances of Ix1 Meaning Comprehension are useful, if the interpretations are not obvious and if competing arguments about them exist.

• My understanding of the statements about Emperor Nero’s whereabouts in Rome while it was burning from July 19 in 64 AD in the extant book De Vita Caesarum attributed to Gaius Suetonius Tranquillus (Wikipedia, 2023).

I16(x) ⇒ I1(x)

This class comprises the action of making categorical hypotheses based on inference rules and theories; By categorical hypotheses we mean assumptions about the kinds of interactions and related kinds of structures of a domain that have the character of “laws” of nature or human behavior, be it necessary or probabilistic. Categorical hypotheses are developed by “induction” from finite numbers of observation and the absence of observations of particular kinds. As such, categorical hypotheses are always subject to falsification by new evidence. Instances of S8 Categorical Hypothesis Building include making and questioning categorical hypotheses.

• hypothesising that “no binding before the 9^th century is made with spine supports” by Szirmai (S8) [documented in section 7.1 and 7.2 of “The Archaeology of Medieval bookbinding”] (Szirmai, J.A. 1999)

I17(x) ⇒ I5(x)

This property associates an instance of I2 Belief with the instance of I5 Inference Making that used it as a premise.

• My classification and dating of this bowl (I5) used as premise my belief that Dragendorff type 29 bowls are from the 1^st century AD (I2).
• My classification and dating of this bowl (I5) used as premise my belief in the observations of this bowl (I2).

J1(x,y) ⇒ I5(x)

J1(x,y) ⇒ I2(y)

J1(x,y) ⇒ P17(x,y)

This property associates an instance of I2 Belief with the instance of I1 Argumentation that concluded it.

• Ian Hodder’s re-examination, in 1996, of the physical relation of wall C and floor B of building 1 in the north area of Catalhöyük (I1) concluded that Ian Hodder believed from 1996 on, that Floor B was earlier than wall C of building 1 in the north area of Catalhöyük (I2) (Hodder 1999).

J2(x,y) ⇒ I1(x)

J2(x,y) ⇒ I2(y)

J2(x,y) ⇒ AP24(x,y)

J2(x,y) ⇒ P175(x,y)

J2(x,y) ⇒ P175i(x,y)

J2(x,y) ⇒ P875(x,y)

This property associates an instance of I3 Inference Logic with the instance of I5 Inference Making that used it to draw its conclusion.

• My classification and dating of this bowl (I5) applied use of a typology (I3).

J3(x,y) ⇒ J5(x)

J3(x,y) ⇒ J3(y)

J3(x,y) ⇒ P16(x,y)

This property associates an instance of I4 Proposition Set with the instance of I2 Belief that holds an opinion about it.

• Dragendorff’s belief concerning type 29 Bowls (I2) that type 29 Bowls are from the 1st century AD (I4).

J4(x,y) ⇒ I2(x)

J4(x,y) ⇒ I4(y)

This property associates an instance of I2 Belief with the I6 Belief Value that reflects the opinion of the instance of I2 Belief about the I4 Proposition Set associated with it.

• Dragendorff’s belief that type 29 bowls are from the 1^st century AD (I2) holds to be True (I6)

J5(x,y) ⇒ I2(x)

J5(x,y) ⇒ I6(y)

This property associates an instance of I7 Belief Adoption with the instance of E73 Information Object hat a source of or evidence for the I4 Proposition Set that was adopted.

• That Francesca Bologna adopted the belief of Tacitus concerning Emperor Nero's whereabouts at the beginning of the Great Fire (I7) is based on evidence from Tacitus, Publius Cornelius. The Annals. Book 15 [15.6]. (Bologna, 2021)

J7(x,y) ⇒ I7(x)

J7(x,y) ⇒ E73(y)

J7(x,y) ⇒ P16(y)

This property associates an instance of I7 Belief Adoption with the instance of I12 Adopted Belief that was established and possibly selected from the interpretation of the source or sources referred to by the property J14 adopted interpretation of. This property implies a relation of trust in the reliability of the sources. The actual believed content, i.e., propositions about some past reality that have been adopted from the source, should be documented using the property J4 that.

• Francesca Bologna adopting the belief of Tacitus concerning Emperor Nero's whereabouts at the beginning of the Great Fire (I7) adopted interpretation the belief of Francesca Bologna according to which Nero was at Antium when the Great Fire broke out and did not return to Rome until the fire had approached his hous (I12) (Bologna, 2021)

J13(x,y) ⇒ I7(x)

J13(x,y) ⇒ I12(y)

J13(x,y) ⇒J2(x,y)

J13(x,y) ⇐ (∃uvw) [E73(u)˄ J7(x,z) ˄ I13(v) ˄ J15(x,y) ˄ I4(w) ˄ J4(y,w) ˄ J17(u,y) ˄ J16(v,w)]

This property associates an instance of I12 Adopted Belief with a source or sources of interpretation from which the belief was established and possibly selected. In some cases of scholarly arguments, multiple source referring to a common topic may have been interpreted in order to form a particular belief about the topic referred to.

• Francesca Bologna’s belief that “Nero was at Antium when the Great Fire broke out and did not return to Rome until the fire approached his house” (I12) adopted interpretation of Tacitus, Publius Cornelius. The Annals. Book 15 [15.6] (E73). (Bologna 2021)

J14(x,y) ⇒ I12(x)

J14(x,y) ⇒ E73(y)

This property associates an instance of I7 Belief Adoption with an instance of I13 Intended meaning Belief about a meaning believed to be expressed in the source or sources referred to by the property J14 adopted interpretation of.

• Francesca Bologna adopting the belief of Tacitus concerning Emperor Nero's whereabouts at the beginning of the Great Fire (I7) assumed meaning the belief of Francesca Bologna that what Publius Cornelius Tacitus meant was “Nero was at Antium when the Great Fire broke out and did not return to Rome until the fire approached his house” (I13) (Bologna 2021).

J15(x,y) ⇒ I7(x)

J15(x,y) ⇒ J13(y)

J15(x,y) ⇒ J1(x,y)

This property associates an instance of I13 Intended Meaning Belief with the instance of I4 Proposition Set that represents the meaning assumed by the holder of the belief to have been intended by the respective source. The latter source can be documented with the property J17 about (has interpretation).

• Francesca Bologna’s belief that Publius Cornelius Tacitus meant that “Nero was at Antium when the Great Fire broke out and did not return to Rome until the fire approached his house” (I13)
  assumed meaning
  {Nero in July 19, 64 AD (E93 Presence)
  P164 is temporally specified by: July 19, 64 AD (E52 Time-Span)
  P195 was a presence of: Nero Claudius Caeesar Drusus Germanicus (E21 Person)
  P167 was within Antium in 64 AD, Italy (E53 Place)
  P133 is spatiotemporally separated from: The Great Fire of Rome (E5 Event)

P1 is identified by: incendium magnum Romae (E41 Appellation)
P4 has timespan: July 19-27, AD (E52 Time-Span)
P7 took place at: Rome, in 64AD, Italy (E53 Place)

}I4 (Bologna, 2021).

J16(x,y) ⇒ I13(x)

J16(x,y) ⇒ I4(y)

This property associates an instance of I13 Intended Meaning Belief with the instance of E73 Information Object that was a source of or evidence for the interpretation of its intended meaning. If sources are fragmentary about or complementary to a specific topic, more than one source may have been used.

• Francesca Bologna’s belief that Gauis Suetonius Tranquillus meant that Nero was singing in Rome while it was burning from July 19 in 64 AD about the extant book De Vita Caesarum, attributed to Gaius Suetonius Tranquillus.

J17(x,y) ⇒ I13(x)

J17(x,y) ⇒ E73(y)

This property associates an instance of I7 Belief Adoption with an instance of I14 Provenance Belief about the source or sources referred to by the property J14 adopted interpretation of, which justifies the conviction that the trusted and adopted content of the source, or its copy at hand, is actually identical, or sufficiently close to the assumed original and its context of creation.

• Francesca Bologna adopting the belief of Tacitus concerning Emperor Nero's whereabouts at the beginning of the Great Fire (I7) assumed provenance her belief about the authenticity of Tacitus, Publius Cornelius. The Annals. Book 15 (I14).

J18(x,y) ⇒ I7(x)

J18(x,y) ⇒ I14(y)

J18(x,y) ⇒ J7(x,y)

This property associates an instance of I14 Provenance Belief with the instance of I10 Provenance Statement that holds an opinion about it.

• Francesca Bologna’s belief about the authenticity of Tacitus, Publius Cornelius. The Annals. Book 15 that the copy of Tacitus, Publius Cornelius. The Annals. Book 15[15.6] at the hands of Francesca Bologna from the British Museum in 2021 represents a text written by the ancient Roman historian, Publius Cornelius Tacitus.
• Francesca Bologna’s belief about the authenticity of Tacitus, Publius Cornelius. The Annals. Book 15 that the copy of Tacitus, Publius Cornelius. The Annals. Book 15[15.6], which she had access to in 2021 and had originated from the British Museum, represents a text written by the ancient Roman historian, Publius Cornelius Tacitus (I10).

J19(x,y) ⇒ I14(x)

J19(x,y) ⇒ I10(y)

J19(x,y) ⇒ J4(x,y)

This property associates an instance of I10 Provenance Statement with an instance of E70 Thing, the provenance of which the statement describes.

• The statement: “The exemplar of The Merchant of Venice, Quarto 1 (1600) owned by The British Library, shelf number BL C.34.k.22 was published in 1600 AD by Thomas Heyes” (I10) is about the provenance of the exemplar of The Merchant of Venice, Quarto 1 (1600), owned by the British Library, shelf number BL C.34.k.22 (E70).

J20(x,y) ⇒ I10(x)

J20(x,y) ⇒ E70(y)

J20 (x,y) ⇒ P129(x,y)

This property describes the naming or identification of any real-world item by a name or any other identifier.

This property associates an instance of I15 Provenance Assessment with an instance of I14 Provenance Belief that constitutes the conclusion of the assessment. An instance of I15 Provenance Assessment may conclude more than one instances of I14 Provenance Belief, typically about different objects considered in the same assessment.

• The assessment by Ersnt Pernicka et al. about the provenance of the Nebra Sky Disc (I15) concluded that Ernst Pernicka et al. believe that the Nebra Sky Disc dates to the Early Bronze Age (Pernicka et al. 2020)

J21(x,y) ⇒ I15(x)

J21(x,y) ⇒ I14(y)

J21 (x,y) ⇒ J2(x,y)

This property associates an instance of I16 Meaning Comprehension with the instance of E73 Information Object that was the source of or evidence for the interpretation of its intended meaning. If sources are fragmentary about or complementary to a specific topic, more than one source may have been used.

• My understanding of the statements about Emperor Nero’s whereabouts in Rome while it was burning from July 1 in 64 AD (I16) interpreted meaning of the extant book De Vita Caesarum by Gaius Suetonius Tranquillus.

J22(x,y) ⇒ I16(x)

J22(x,y) ⇒ E73 (y)

J22 (x,y) ⇒ P16(x,y)

This property associates an instance of I16 Meaning Comprehension with the instance of I13 Intended Meaning Belief that was the result of the interpretation of the intended meaning of the analysed source(s).

• My understanding of the statements about Emperor Nero’s whereabouts in Rome while it was burning from July 19 in 64 AD (I16) interpreted meaning as believing that it meant Nero was singing in Rome while it was burning from July 19 in 64 AD (I13).

J23(x,y) ⇒ I16(x)

J23(x,y) ⇒ I13 (y)

J23(x,y) ⇒ J2(x,y)